Division of Social Sciences

Background

On the 28th of February 2023, MT Princess Empress capsized off the coast of Naujan Town in Oriental Mindoro, carrying with it 800,000 liters¹ of industrial fuel. This incident released oil into the waters between Isla Verde and Luzon. Currently, the oil spill has spread to the various surrounding towns and provinces, putting in danger approximately 36,000 hectares of coral reefs, sea grass, and mangroves.² If the spill cannot be immediately contained or the impacted shorelines cannot be efficiently and effectively cleaned up, the environmental impact could be catastrophic³ and, subsequently, the resource base, on which many coastal communities are dependent on for their livelihoods, will be affected.

The Dilemma of Small Islands: Limited Assets and Remoteness

Unlike communities in the mainland and in large islands, small island communities have fragile ecosystems with limited resources and their distance from the mainland give them limited access to much needed essential resources and services that may facilitate fast post-oil spill recovery. The destruction of marine ecosystems, which they rely on for livelihoods, leaves them with very limited to no alternative sustainable livelihoods. There is also inherent difficulty in accessing political and economic support to aid recovery due to their remoteness. 

Impacts on Coastal Space Utilisation

For the affected communities, the sea is not just a space for livelihood. The destruction brought about by the oil spill may also cascade into the other functions and meanings the sea has for these communities. Many communities consider the sea as a space for socialization and recreation. Furthermore, some of the affected areas have tourism activities that may be affected. The Department of Tourism in Western Visayas has already advised⁴ tourists in Caluya Island, Antique to avoid water activities. The agency also advised visitors in Boracay to take similar precautionary measures. The oil spill, as it stands, will not only affect those who reside in the coastal communities, but also individuals who use these coastal spaces for leisure, social, spiritual, and productive purposes.

Livelihoods and Local Economic Impacts of Oil Spills on Communities

Depending on the extent of hazard exposure, vulnerability of affected areas, and the effectiveness of preparedness and response efforts, oil spills potentially result in short to long-lasting damage to coastal households and to communities. Previous oil spill experiences, such as the MT Solar 1 oil spill,⁵ showed negative effects on mangroves and fishing grounds, causing significant decline in fish catch. As most of the affected communities survived through small-scale fishing, the 2006 oil spill caused livelihood losses. The MT Princess Empress oil spill, as projected by the UP-MSI, may flow through the small islands along the Verde Island Passage (VIP). The VIP is a crucial spot for marine biodiversity, supporting the livelihood of surrounding small island communities. 

The loss of marine resource base, though temporary, will impact heavily on households dependent on subsistence fishing or on marine ecosystems. Immediate containment of the oil spill or coastal clean-up can hasten ecosystem and livelihood recovery.⁶ However, where containment and clean up take time, long-term impacts are projected. Inability of poor fishing households to fish in traditional fishing grounds due to oil spill;  inability to glean due to oil residues; failure or inability of marine agriculture such as seaweeds farming coupled with lack of access to vegetative cover for food and other needs in small islands will cause not only livelihoods but also, income and food insecurity.  The imposition of the fishing ban and the advisories against water-based tourism activities, along with other associated restrictions may complicate these impacts.  This will be most challenging for households in difficult circumstances, e.g. with elderly, persons with disabilities or ailments, dependent children, female-headed households.

Over-all these can result in decreased economic productivity and stagnation of the local economy that will render many challenged households more vulnerable.

Health Impacts after an Oil Spill

Oil spills may bring about health problems on people and communities along its path. The scientific literature⁷ has established the aversive health effects of oil spills on individuals and communities. These effects range from mental health concerns, respiratory problems, irritations, neurological effects, and trauma-related symptoms. These effects were observed not only on residents of affected communities, but also on individuals who participated in the clean-up operations. These effects lasted for some years after the exposure.

Food safety and Health

Contamination of food coming from the sea and coastal areas affected by the oil spill is a major concern. While it is more apparent in islands directly affected by the oil spill, other areas that are traditionally rich fishing grounds of neighboring islands in Western Visayas can experience low yield or low demand of fishery or related products due to perceived health risks.  The oil spill affected areas may also affect nearby islands exporting fishery-related products that are subjected to global phyto-sanitary measures.

Psychosocial Health and Well Being Dimensions

The scientific literature⁸ has established the aversive health effects of oil spills on individuals and communities. Drastic and significant disruptions in routine and other social activities of coastal communities due to oil spill are generally stressful and may challenge community resilience. 

Disasters, in general, put families and communities at risk.⁹ Oil spills, in particular, may  lead to mental health responses as a result of psychosocial concerns brought about by environmental disruption, toxic chemical exposure, livelihood loss or disruption, disruptions in social engagements, and impacts on cultural or traditional practices.¹⁰ Anxiety, depression, interpersonal violence, post-traumatic stress symptoms, poor academic performance, and a variety of socially disruptive behaviors were commonly observed in various oil spill studies. Many studies also showed lower quality of life of communities in the aftermath of the oil spill, with some sectors (e.g., women, fishers) experiencing worse consequences. While social support, as a protective factor, is usually mobilized in the aftermath of disasters, support deterioration commonly occurs as the disaster continues to progress.¹¹ These effects, which lasted for some years after the exposure, were not only observed on residents of affected communities, but were also observed on individuals who participated in the clean-up operations. The small island context of the affected communities may hinder individuals, families, and communities from accessing mental health and other resources that may provide psychological relief.

Oil Spill Anticipatory Action, Response, Recovery, and Rehabilitation 

As the MT Princess Empress oil spill disaster unfolds, there is a need to have anticipatory action, response, recovery, and rehabilitation measures in place. In planning these measures, it is also important to remember that not everyone in the community are, or will be, affected by the oil spill in the same way. 

The Value of the PDRA (Pre-Disaster Risk Assessment) in  Local Risk Governance

Anticipatory action measures aim to help communities that are not yet (directly) affected. These measures may include preparation by the local government units (LGUs) to conduct pre-disaster risk assessment (PDRA) as required by NDRRMC guidance.¹² PDRAs should factor in health and socio-economic risk variables. 

Preparedness Measures

LGUs may activate the use of the local disaster risk reduction and management fund (LDRRMF), 70% of which may be used for preparedness activities. For small island communities, preparatory activities may include stockpiling, identifying evacuation sites, capacity-building (e.g., training for and purchase of alternative livelihood implements), forging agreements with mainland suppliers (for goods and services), purchasing/acquiring of PPEs and other clean-up implements, preparing protocols for accessing health and social welfare services, provision of transient housing for households whose air quality is affected by the oil spill, and prepositioning of food, water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services. 

Response Measures

Response measures should be evidence-based and attuned to the needs of the communities. Immediate response must address acute needs, such as food and water, medicines, and economic needs. Oil spill response must address pertinent issues such as health (including mental health) and sanitation, alternative livelihoods, social welfare services, and temporary evacuation. These measures should identify and support vulnerable populations (e.g., children, pregnant women, fishers), must be empowering, gender- and culture-sensitive, with consideration to female heads of households, persons with disabilities (PWDs), and the elderly without or with very limited family support. Response measures should also take into consideration individuals with special health concerns that may be exacerbated by the oil spill (e.g., those with pre-existing respiratory diseases, those with prior trauma). It is also important to create a fair and transparent compensation process for families and communities affected by the oil spill. Compensation processes that are perceived to be unfair and unjust may cause confusion and anger, and hinder community recovery.

Support for Oil Spill Responders

Responders during an oil spill also need support. Occupational safety should be ensured; proper personal protective equipment (PPE) and proper training on handling toxic substances¹³ should be provided. Oil spill responders may also experience health issues and psychological distress as a result of responding to this disaster. As responders interact with the communities affected, they may experience emotional exhaustion and burnout. It is important that they are given proper psychosocial support to help them deal with the psychological cost of aiding affected communities.

Recovery and Rehabilitation

Recovery and rehabilitation efforts must also follow the same principles of culture-sensitivity and gender-fairness. The aim of recovery is “restoring or improving of livelihoods and health, as well as economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental assets, systems and activities, of a disaster-affected community or society, aligning with the principles of sustainable development and “build forward better”, to avoid or reduce future disaster risk.¹⁴” Pre-disaster recovery efforts will be helpful and should include key stakeholders, especially the communities affected by the oil spill. These plans must include anticipated recovery issues while also being cognizant of other emerging hazards (e.g., lingering toxic substances) and individual and community vulnerabilities (e.g., health issues, poverty). Recovery goals should be co-owned, co-created by and co-beneficial to different stakeholders. These communities, especially those in small islands, should have technical, financial, and material support from the government and civil societies. It is also crucial that recovery efforts are being monitored constantly using established indicators to ensure that they achieve the recovery goals. Successful recovery efforts should pave the way for successful rehabilitation and restoration of coastal and marine ecosystems, livelihoods, and other related social and occupational activities.

Attention to Over-arching Areas of Concern

• Dysfunctional pre-disaster social structures and processes may be magnified in the process of helping communities recover from the oil spill;
• Island residents who are more likely going to be affected by the oil spill should be well informed about the nature of the oil spill and what they should do to mitigate its impact.
• The LGUs should establish a system in the distribution of aid to ensure its equitable access.
• Efforts by various sectors to help the affected communities after the oil spill must be coordinated and holistic to avoid siloed intervention and waste of resources. 
• There should be attention to the people and communities affected by this disaster, who will continue to live in these affected environments, and live with these environmental effects.

Authors: Johnrev Guilaran, Jessica Dator-Bercilla, Aniceta Patricia Alingasa-Aguirre, Gay Defiesta, Louie Marie Eluriaga, Bernice Vania Mamauag, Hanny John Mediodia, Cristabel Rose Parcon, Alice Prieto-Carolino, Augil Marie Robles, and Lylve Maliz Zeller

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Notes

1 The Philippine Star https://www.philstar.com/headlines/climate-and-environment/2023/03/02/2248742/oriental-mindoro-oil-spill-could-affect-21-marine-protected-areas-denr

2 The University of the Philippines Marine Science Institute (UP-MSI) Bulletin No. 03 https://www.msi.upd.edu.ph/News/content/Update-2-Mindoro-Oil-Spill

3 UP-MSI report on the possible trajectories of the oil spill: https://www.msi.upd.edu.ph/News/content/Update-Mindoro-Oil-Spill.

4 Department of Tourism Region VI Advisory No. 1: Oil Spill-Affected Areas in Western Visayas dated 04 March 2023

5 The MT Solar 1 oil tanker, which carried 2.4 million liters of bunker fuel, sank off the coast of Guimaras in 2006. It poured more than 500,000 liters of fuel into the Guimaras and Iloilo straits.

6 Stephanie E. Chang, Jeremy Stone, Kyle Demes and Marina Piscitelli (2014), Consequences of oil spills: a review and framework for informing planning,  Ecology and Society , Jun 2014, Vol. 19, No. 2 (Jun 2014)

7 Laffon, B., Pásaro, E., & Valdiglesias, V. (2016). Effects of exposure to oil spills on human health: Updated review. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part B, 19(3-4), 105-128.

8 Laffon, B., Pásaro, E., & Valdiglesias, V. (2016). Effects of exposure to oil spills on human health: Updated review. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part B, 19(3-4), 105-128.

9 Bonanno et al. (2010). Weighing the costs of disasters: Consequences, risks, and resilience in individuals, families and communities. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 11(1), 1-49.

10 Goldstein, B. D., Osofsky, H. J., & Lichtveld, M. Y. (2011). The Gulf oil spill. New England Journal of Medicine, 364(14), 1334-1348.

11 Norris, F. H., & Kaniasty, K. (1996). Received and perceived social support in times of stress: a test of the social support deterioration deterrence model. Journal of personality and social psychology, 71(3), 498.

12 Official Gazette, 20 March 2015 https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2015/03/20/ndrrmc-highlights-predisaster-risk-assessment-as-a-means-to-save-lives-during-pre-evacuation/

13 For responders who are not yet trained, as in the case of community responders.

14 United Nations General Assembly, 2016